Legacy in Stones: Mughal Inlay Art as Treasured Indian Craft

Within the rich tapestry of the Mughal Empire’s architectural grandeur lies an enduring artistic legacy — a tale intricately woven in stone, whispering unparalleled expressions of artisanal brilliance.

Sense of Wander: ★★★★☆

Adorning the walls of the Taj Mahal, intricate stone inlays breathe life into ornate vegetal designs and Arabic calligraphy, transforming the marble canvas into a mesmerising visual feast.

AGRA, India — In the heart of India, where the whispers of history dance amidst the vibrant hues of culture and tradition, one monument stands as an emblem of timeless love and architectural magnificence — the Taj Mahal. Its white facade of Makrana marble has long captured the imagination of travellers worldwide, drawing them into the romantic saga of Emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628-1658) and his beloved Mumtaz Mahal. Yet, beyond its walls lies a deeper narrative, one woven with threads of artistic mastery and cultural legacy that define the very essence of the Mughal Empire: the stone inlay.

So what is stone inlay?

Imagine a canvas not painted, but composed of stone, where small fragments of semi-precious stones and organic materials such as shells unite to craft to a mesmerising tapestry of patterns and designs. Take, for example, the Taj Mahal, where stones sourced from various parts of the Indian subcontinent and beyond are carefully placed into sockets within a white marble base. This is the art of stone inlay — a meticulous craft that brings the very surface it adorns to life.

In India, stone inlay is known as “pachchikari” or “parchinkari.” Emerging from the illustrious courts of the Mughal Empire (1526–1857), this decorative technique graced the walls of royal palaces and masjid (place of worship for Muslims) across the subcontinent from the 16th century onward, evolving into a legacy of unparalleled artistry and craftsmanship in India.

“… and the midnight black of onyx is revered for its protective energy, akin to the resilience and strength of India’s people across all strata of society.”

In the context of Mughal stone inlay, the base stone is often white Makrana marble, as showcased in iconic landmarks like the Taj Mahal and the Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula (also known as the Baby Taj). Alternatively, red sandstones sourced from the quarries of Rajasthan serves as the foundation for structures such as the Tomb of Akbar.

The stones used for inlay boast a diverse colour palette: the fiery hues of carnelian reflects the vibrant energy pulsating through every corner of the city; the earthy tones of jasper evoke the arid deserts of Rajasthan; the lush, verdant green of malachite echoes the abundant vegetation thriving in India’s tropical climate; the deep, celestial blue of lapis lazuli embodies the infinite possibilities characterising the pursuit for knowledge and enlightenment; and the midnight black of onyx is revered for its protective energy, akin to the resilience and strength of India’s people across all strata of society. These are just a few of the common hues found in Mughal stone inlay, each contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian craftsmanship and heritage.

Inside the Agra Fort, the throne pavilion at Diwan-i-Am offers a stunning showcase of the art of stone inlay seamlessly integrated into the marble architecture, adding a distinctive Mughal aesthetic to the structure.

Take a closer look at the stone-inlaid vegetal designs adorning the columns of the Musamman Burj, an octagonal tower located near Shah Jahan’s private hall, Diwan-e-Khas, within Agra Fort.

As if penned by the hand of a master calligrapher, the Arabic script gracing the facade of the Taj Mahal is, in reality, meticulously inlaid with hardstones, showcasing an interdisciplinary fusion of the arts.

Wait, stone inlay is not “pietra dura”!

Many often draw parallels between the stone inlay techniques of Mughal artisans and the renowned Italian craft of pietra dura, which translates to “hard stones.” Yet, upon closer examination, a fascinating distinction emerges between the stone inlay traditions originating from India and their Italian counterpart.

The association between Mughal stone inlay and Italian pietra dura dates back to the observations of Bishop Heber (1783-1826) during his visit to the Red Fort in Delhi in 1824. Entranced by plaques of black marble adorned with floral and fauna motifs, complementing a depiction of the Greek god Orpheus serenading animals with his musical prowess, Bishop Heber linked these works to the Florentine tradition, attributing them to the hands of Italian or European artists. This notion gained further traction through the writings of James Fergusson (1808-1886), the pioneering art historian who extensively studied the Agra Fort from 1835 to 1845, proposing that these panels were crafted by Florentine or Italian artisans.

While these “Orpheus plaques” indeed showcase Italian craftsmanship, they represent a singular example of this technique within India. As pointed out by art historian John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, these plaques are likely 18th-century imports, absent from Indian artistry before the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Further bolstering this argument is the fact that the black marble used in these plaques is not native to the Indian subcontinent.

The “Orpheus placques” at the Diwan-i-Am in Delhi’s historic Red Fort showcase exquisite examples of pietra dura in the Florentine tradition, featuring intricate depictions of flora and fauna. Image sourced from the internet.

While these “Orpheus plaques” do indeed showcase Italian craftsmanship, they stand as a singular example of this technique within India. As pointed out by Sir John Hubert Marshall (1876-1958), Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928, these plaques are likely 18th-century imports that arrived in India before the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707). This assertion is further supported by the fact that the black marble used in these plaques is not indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.

It’s also noteworthy that Persian manuscripts detailing the construction of the Taj Mahal mention the names of native artisans, such as stonecutters (sang-tarash), flower carvers (gul-tarash), and inlayers (pachchikars or parchinkars), without any mention of European names.

That being said, what are the differences between the Italian technique of pietra dura and the art of stone inlay developed during the reign from Humayun to Shah Jahan? As noted by Professor Ram Nath, an Indian historian specialising in Mughal architecture, pietra dura resembles an inlaid mosaic, where meticulously-cut stone pieces, akin to puzzles, are pieced together to form a picture on a stone slab. This “overlay” technique, akin to “tessellated mosaic,” stands in stark contrast to the “inlay” technique employed by Mughal artisans, who create grooves or sockets on a stone base and fill in the pieces of stone accordingly.

Professor Nath further highlights that Mughal inlay was primarily reserved for architectural elements, including pavements, dados, pillars, lintels, tombstones, domes, minarets, and more. This stands in contrast to decorative Italian pietra dura, which often adorned table tops, shelf panels, and even paintings as a form of ornamentation. In short, stone inlay is integral to the architectural space it covers, unlike pietra dura plaques, which are independent of architecture.

All in all, stone inlay epitomises the distinctive ornamentation of Mughal architecture, much like the glimmering golden glass mosaic of Byzantine architecture or the glazed tiles of Iranian architecture.

The outer wall of the Jama Masjid in Agra is a prime example of the “inlay” technique, illustrating how leaf-shaped hardstones in contrasting white and black hues fill the sockets cut into a red sandstone base.

Admire the intricate stone-inlaid floral designs gracing the tower of the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, often referred to as a “jewel box” for its exquisite beauty.

A rich palette of earthy-toned stones adorns the dado, or lower part, of the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah in Agra.

In addition to sinuous vegetal motifs, geometric patterns like the chevron can also be found adorning the dado of the Taj Mahal.

Where can you appreciate the art of stone inlay in India?

If you share my passion for the art of Mughal inlay, India offers a wealth of destinations where you can immerse yourself in this quintessential craft. Below, I’ve put together a list of places where you can witness the pinnacle of Mughal inlay artistry across the country:

• Taj Mahal
  A must-visit destination for anyone in Agra, this architectural marvel showcases intricate works of stone inlay both on its interior and exterior. But photography is unfortunately not permitted inside the mausoleum.
  

• Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula
  This place is considered a precursor to the Taj Mahal, earning it the affectionate nickname “Baby Taj.” Personally, my love for this place surpasses even that of the Taj Mahal. The intricate craftsmanship showcased in the architecture, along with the diverse colour palette of hardstones used in the stone inlay, captivates me. It’s no wonder this place is referred to as the “Jewel Box” — it's truly a gem!
  

• The Agra Fort
  Several palaces within the Agra Fort feature stunning examples of stone inlay artistry. One notable palace is the Jahangiri Mahal, known for its intricate stone carvings and inlaid designs adorning its walls and ceilings. Additionally, the Khas Mahal, a private palace for the Mughal emperors, boasts elegant stone inlay work on its facades, showcasing intricate floral motifs and geometric patterns. The Sheesh Mahal, or Palace of Mirrors, also features exquisite stone inlay art alongside its reflective surfaces, creating a mesmerising interplay of light and colour.
  

• Tomb of Akbar

  Nestled in Sikandra, a suburb of Agra, the Tomb of Akbar stands as a prime exemplar of stone inlay artistry on a red sandstone canvas. Intricate geometric and vegetal patterns, meticulously cut from white marble and black slate, embellish the earthy-red ground, imparting a lace-like, textile quality to the facade of this royal mausoleum.

The Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula, affectionately known as the “Baby Taj,” holds a special place in my heart as my favourite destination to admire the exquisite artistry of Mughal stone inlay.

Mughal stone inlay continues to be a living art.

Though the golden age of Mughal stone inlay has passed, it’s worth noting that descendants of the artisans who once crafted the stone inlay work for the Taj Mahal still reside in the vicinity of this UNESCO site in Agra. Today, a handful of these artisan families continue to preserve this ancient craft, offering handcrafted inlay products for those seeking to take home a piece of this cultural legacy.

During my time in Agra, I had the privilege of visiting one such workshop, where I witnessed firsthand the traditional techniques still employed in the creation of this time-honoured art. From the precision of the stone cutter’s drill to the delicate handiwork of the inlayer, the process remains steeped in tradition.

I’m excited to share more about my experience at the stone inlay workshop in an upcoming article. Stay tuned for the full story!

Reference:
R. Nath (2004). Mughal Inlay Art. Indian History and Culture Society.