Wander in India: Qutb Minar Complex

The Qutb Minar complex, one of the most visited destinations in India’s bustling capital, not only illuminates a unique fusion of Indic and Muslim architectural traditions but also tells compelling stories of power, conquest, and faith.

Sense of Wander: ★★★★★

Qutb Minar, a minaret built adjacent to the mosques in the Islamic tradition, stands proudly amidst the remains of the Qutb Minar complex in South Delhi.

NEW DELHI, India — Lying on the southern fringe of India’s bustling capital, in the historic neighbourhood of Mehrauli, lies the Qutb Minar complex, a UNESCO World Heritage site that ranks only second to the Taj Mahal in visitor numbers

The Qutb Minar complex is a treasure trove of architectural marvels, showcasing the rich cultural synthesis of the Indian subcontinent. It features an soaring minaret, a mosque, a tomb, and a gate, among other structures. It is also home to the rustless wonder — the Iron Pillar — from the 5th century.

Each monument within the complex tells a story of political conquest and religious fervour, standing as a testament to the aesthetic fusion that defines the diversity of India’s architectural landscape. As we’ll see, these various structures also reflect the rulers’ aspiration to transform India from “Dar al-Harb” (Arabic: دار الحرب), literally “World of War,” to “Dar al-Islam” (Arabic: دار الإسلام‎), or “World of Islam.”

Looking up from ground level at the towering 73-metre Qutb Minar, one is captivated by its exterior adorned with a unique blend of Indic and Islamic elements.

The Minaret: Qutb Minar

Measuring 73-metre high, the Qutb Minar remains the tallest minaret built in the pre-modern world. In the Islamic tradition, pencil-like minarets serve a practical function, allowing the muezzin to call the faithful to prayer through the adhan, the Islamic call to prayer.

To understand the context of Qutb Minar, it’s important to mention the Ghurids. Originating from the Ghor region in present-day Afghanistan, the Ghurids rose to power in the 12th century. Initially vassals of the Ghaznavids, who ruled from the Oxus to the Indus Valley from 977 to 1186, the Ghurids declared independence and embarked on a series of military campaigns, expanding their territory significantly.

Under the leadership of Muhammad of Ghor, who reigned from 1173 to 1206 alongside his brother, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, the Ghurids made a powerful entry into the Indian subcontinent. They achieved a decisive victory over the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan at the Battle of Tarain in 1192. This triumph paved the way for Ghurid rule in northern India, marking the dawn of a new era of Islamic dominance and laying the foundation for the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526).

The exterior of the Qutb Minar, amidst natural-inspired elements of the Indic design repertoire, is adorned with a blend of inscriptions in Arabic and Persian.

Following Muhammad of Ghor’s assassination in 1206, his former Turkic slave and viceroy, Qutb al-Din Aibak (reigned 1206-1210), ascended to power. Aibak became the first Sultan of Delhi.

To honour his deceased master, Aibak initiated the construction of the Qutb Minar. However, he didn’t live to see its completion; this monumental task was carried forward his son-in-law, Iltutmish (reigned 1211-1236).

Crafted from red sandstone and marble, the Qutb Minar features a polygonal base with 24 alternating angular and rounded projections. Its design is inspired by the architectural traditions of the Ghurids and Ghaznavids. One notable example is the minaret at Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad’s headquarters in Firuzkoh, or present-day Jam, Afghanistan.

There’s been debate over whether the minaret was originally a converted Hindu temple tower (stambha) or built as a minaret. However, it’s worth noting that even within the architectural traditions of the Ghurids and Ghaznavids, Indian stonemasons played a crucial role, integrating Indic visual vocabularies into the construction.

A close-up view of the balcony on the top story of the Qutb Minar reveals intricate muqarnas corbels, showcasing this distinctive form of decorative vaulting in Islamic architecture.

The Qutb Minar’s exterior is intricately adorned with fluted columns and calligraphic inscriptions in both Arabic and Persian, showcasing the exquisite artistry and cultural fusion of the period. The lower story is replete with Persian eulogies to Muhammad Ghori, proclaiming the Ghurid co-rulers as the “masters of the kings of Arabia and Iran, the most just of the Sultans in the world.”

That said, this majestic minaret emerged as more than just a religious symbol; it stood as a potent emblem of political authority, a tower of victory celebrating the Ghurids’ triumphs. Some suggest it also served a military function as watchtower to monitor the Delhi plain, given the looming threat of Mongol invasion from the northwest.

The monument was originally inscribed simply as “minar,” meaning “minaret.” Its current name, Qutb Minar, became widely known with the publication of Asar al-Sanadid, an Urdu text that describes buildings in Delhi, in 1847. It was then that the name “Qutb,” referring to Qut al-Din Aibak, gained popularity.

The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque features a courtyard enclosed by arcades of carved pillars, all made from spolia dating from the 10th to 12th centuries.

The Mosque: Quwwat-ul-Islam

Besides the minaret, the mosque was one of the new building types introduced by the sultan to the Delhi region. Near the Qutb Minar lie the remains of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, India’s first mosque.

The name Quwwat-ul-Islam (Arabic: قوة الإسلام) means “Strength of Islam.” However, an inscription on the mosque from the late 12th century simply calls it “imarat” (building) or “masjid” (mosque), suggesting the current name was adopted in later centuries.

Following the Ghurid victory in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori appointed Qutb al-Din Aibak to oversee his territories in the India subcontinent. According to Islamic practice, a new ruler’s authority is legitimised when his name is read aloud in the Friday prayer. To assert his power, Aibak needed a mosque.

Drawing inspiration from their Ghurid homeland, the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, alongside the towering Qutb Minar, completes the vocabulary of a classic Islamic mosque, symbolising both religious devotion and political dominance.

Intricate corbelled domes hover over the mosque’s prayer chamber.

As was common practice, the first mosque in a new area was quickly built using spolia, repurposing materials from older structures. As you wander through the remains of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, you’ll found spolia integrated throughout — inserted into the walls and entrances, even featuring friezes of Hindu religious subjects.

The mosque boasts a rectangular courtyard enclosed by arcades of carved pillars, all made from spolia dating from the 10th to 12th centuries. An inscription states that 27 Hindu and Jain temple were used for the mosque’s construction. These pillars, taken from the mandapa (pillared hall) of older temples, form the so-called “hypostyle hall,” constituting the original part of this mosque.

The mosque presents a rich visual array of ornate carvings depicting foliage, deities, monstrous-looking Kirtimukhas (also known as “Faces of Glory”), and playful dwarf attendants known as Ganas. This creates a fascinating blend of Hindu religious subjects within an Islamic sanctuary.

These pillars, adorned with carvings of chains and bells, reveal their Hindu origin.

Friezes of Hindu religious subjects found on the mosque’s exterior have their depictions defaced in accordance with Islamic practices.

Iltutmish’s screen is intricately ornamented with a fusion of naturalistic design and Islamic calligraphy. Scholars suggest that the inscription was designed by a highly-trained calligrapher from the Ghurid tradition in Afghanistan.

In the prayer chamber, the pillars stand out for their deliberate absence of figural images, adhering to Islamic practices. Examining up close, I noticed that some pillars, initially adorned with Hindu imagery and later overlaid with geometric designs, revealed their Hindu origins as the plaster wore off.

Others feature carvings of chains and bells, typical elements found in Indian temple entrances and pillars. This fascinating blend highlights how Hindu motifs have been integrated into an Islamic context.

Among these architectural remnants, I was surprised to see Iltutmish’s screen, adorned with carvings reminiscent of Indian textiles. Panels of Islamic calligraphy intertwine letters with lotus creepers, a distinctive Indic tradition, blending the naturalistic Indic carving style with calligraphy — an art form revered above painting in the Islamic world.

Persian historian Minjah-i Siraj Juzjani described Delhi as the Qubbat al-Islam, or “Sanctuary of Islam,” a refuge for Muslim communities fleeing Mongol invasions. Iltutmish championed unity among Delhi’s Muslims through construction and expansion of mosques and other infrastructures to accommodate the city’s growing population.

Unfortunately, over time, much of the qibla wall (indicating the direction of prayer) and the mihrab, intrinsic features of a mosque, have not survived.

The Tomb of Iltutmish in the Qutb Minar complex.

The Tomb: Iltutmish

Shams ud-Din Iltutmish, once Aibak’s highest-ranking slave, inherited a volatile state and its army upon assuming power. Through administrative reforms and territorial expansions, he stabilised the newly independent Sultanate, extending his authority as far as Bengal.

In 1228, the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad formally recognised Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (reigned 1211—1236) as the legitimate ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, solidifying his status within the Islamic world. The name “Iltutmish” translates to “maintainer of the kingdom” in Turkic.

Within the Qutb Minar complex stands a partially-damaged mausoleum attributed to Iltutmish. Modeled after Ghurid precedents in Afghanistan, the mausoleum features a square-shaped plan and originally housed a large dome, now lost to time.

At its centre lies a white marble sarcophagus, serving as a marker for the burial site located at six feet below ground, as per Muslim tradition.

The red sandstone walls of the Tomb of Iltutmish feature exquisite carvings that emulate the tactile quality of Indian textiles.

White marble, sourced from the Aravalli range stretching from Rajasthan to Gujarat, is reserved for certain parts of the mausoleum, notably the central mihrab in the qibla wall.

Among the structures of the Qutb Minar complex, the Tomb of Iltutmish stood out to me, especially for its exquisite wall carvings. These intricate designs include geometric patterns, Quranic inscriptions, and arabesques. Notably, Arabic calligraphy seamlessly integrates into the ornamentation, showcasing “knotted kufic plaiting,” a style where braided elements embellish the vertical strokes of the letters.

Standing within this open-air mausoleum, I couldn’t help but reflect on Iltutmish’s role in consolidating Delhi as the “Sanctuary of Islam” for Muslim refugees of its time. While history has passed, the artistic pinnacle of that era remains etched in stone, embracing visitors with its awe-inspiring craftsmanship.

“… engraved verses of the Quran… ascending so high that you would think the Quran was going up to heaven, and again descending in another line, so low, that you would think it was coming down from heaven.”

Alai Darwaza, the southern entrance of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, stands proudly within the Qutb Minar complex in Delhi.

The Gate: Alai Darwaza

Alai Darwaza is the southern entrance to the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, commissioned by Sultan Alauddin Khilji (reigned 1296–1316) of the Khalji dynasty (1290-1320).

Crafted from red sandstone, Alai Darwaza showcases early examples of true arches and domes in Indo-Islamic architecture, dating back to 1311. Originally planned as part of a larger mosque expansion project initiated by Alauddin to commemorate his victory against the Mongols, the Sultan didn’t live to see its completion, leaving only the Alai Darwaza, or Exalted Gateway, standing.

Both the interior and exterior of Alai Darwaza feature intricate carvings. The interior is adorned with geometric patterns and floral or star motifs, while the exterior is embellished predominantly with calligraphy.

Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), an Indo-Persian Sufi poet, praised the craftsmanship of the Quranic verses engraved on Alauddin’s extension, stating, “[The artisan] engraved verses of the Quran in such a manner as could not be done even in wax; ascending so high that you would think the Quran was going up to heaven, and again descending in another line, so low, that you would think it was coming down from heaven.” Though most inscriptions are historical texts in Persian, Khusrau’s admiration underscores their fine execution.

The red sandstone is accentuated with white marble trim around entrances and windows. Catherine B. Asher suggests this combination may have symbolised a visual celebration of the defeat of the Mongols, using materials readily available in Rajasthani quarries. Percy Brown posits that the use of contrasting coloured stones could be attributed to artisans from Seljuq Turkey fleeing the Mongols following the demise of the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258).

While the exact motivations behind this artistic choice remain unclear, it is worth noting that in the Indic tradition, white symbolises the Brahmins, the Hindu priestly class, while red is associated with the Kshatriyas, the warrior class — a colour scheme later adopted by the Mughals to emphasise their Islamic and Indic heritage.

A close-up view reveals the intricate carving work adorning the entrance to Alai Darwaza.

The Curio: Iron Pillar

Since the 1990s, scholars, based on a 14th-century text, have posited that Iltutmish installed the 6.5-tonne iron pillar from the 5th century in front of Aibak’s screen. This pillar, which originally stood before a temple dedicated to Vishnu, bears an inscription celebrating the military victory of Chandra, likely Chandragupta II (reigned circa 375-415).

Measuring 7.25 metres in height, the Iron Pillar is an object of fascination: despite being made of iron, it doesn’t rust, likely due to its high phosphorus content. The 14th-century Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta described it as an “awe-inspiring column” made of seven metals.

Amidst the Sanctuary of Islam, the Iron Pillar adds a distinctively Indic aesthetic to the mosque. Unfortunately, visitors aren’t permitted to touch it and experience its magic firsthand.

The Iron Pillar stands as a sight of wonder amidst the Islamic structures of the Qutb Minar complex in Delhi.

The Qutb Minar complex is a rich tapestry that weaves together culture, religion, and artistic innovation. With its remarkable history and architectural wonders, it’s no surprise that this destination has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

The soaring Qutb Minar itself stands as a symbol of triumph and resilience, while the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque encapsulates the harmonious blend of Hindu and Islamic visual vocabularies. The majestic Alai Darwaza, with its intricate carvings, marks the entrance to a bygone era of grand architectural vision. The Tomb of Iltutmish, adorned with delicate carvings, tells a story of regal craftsmanship and artistic excellence. Finally, the Iron Pillar, a sight of wonder, adds a unique touch of Indian heritage amidst the Islamic structures.

If you haven’t visited the Qutb Minar complex, I urge you to plan your visit soon. Few places in the world offer such a fascinating synthesis of history, culture, and art.

Reference:
Asher, C. B. (2017). Delhi’s Qutb Complex: The minar, mosque and Mehrauli. Marg Foundation.